Understanding the naming conventions of other cultures is important for an investigator or for anyone wishing to certainly and correctly identify people in our diverse country. The following column is an attempt to assist the reader in correctly applying the conventions of uniquely ethnic names so identification is possible. This article should not be interpreted as indicating any unusual prevalence of any specific  ethnic group toward unlawful or immoral activities, since no such intention exists. In each issue of The John Cooke Financial Fraud Report, we will explore the mysteries of the naming practices of differentethnic cultures. In this issue, we look at Nigerian names.

NIGERIAN NAMES:

Africa is the second largest continent in the world, with about 18.8 million square miles or about one-fifth of the world's total land surface. It is nearly three times as large as the United States, including Alaska. The people of Africa are very diverse, with over one thousand different cultural groups and languages. Each of the 50 countries that make up the continent of Africa today has its own customs, government, monetary system and official language.

Nigeria is located on the west coast of Africa. It is made up of multiple tribes, with about 100 different languages and dialects. Major groups among these are the Hausa, Igbo and Yoruba. The Hausa occupy the northern part of the country; Igbo are located in the southeast and Yoruba in the southwest. The Hausa are Muslims while the Yoruba and Igbo are predominantly Christians. Various dialects are spoken by the different groups. For example, dialects spoken by the Yoruba include Egba, Ekitti, Ijebu, Ilaje, Ondo, Oyo, etc.

Nigerian society attributes a lot of importance to class structure. In the past, Nigeria was a British colony, with Lords and commoners. Today, there are upper, middle and lower classes. The upper classes appreciate being looked up to and recognized. They facilitate this by using chieftancy titles and riding in luxury cars.

All tribes have money but some are more conscious of education as the underlying basis of economic power. Yoruba are very educated and thus have economic power. Igbo are more enterprising; although they are also educated, their emphasis is on business. Names do not tell occupation but they do indicate the part of the country the person is from. A Nigerian can tell what part of the country the person is from by his name.

The Yoruba tribes are very rich in tradition. The naming of a child is felt to be very important and so is accompanied by ceremony. Although there are some minor differences between the different Yoruba tribes, in general the naming of a child takes place on the seventh day after birth for females and on the ninth day after birth for males. If the naming involves a pair of twins, one of each sex, the naming will take place on the eighth day. This day, the first day that the mother and child are brought out of the birthing room, has a special name "Ko omo jade" or "bringing out the child."

The naming ceremony takes place early in the day, 6 or 7 o'clock in the morning, and is attended by the principal members of the families and friends. After the mother and child are brought out of the room, a jugful of water is thrown up on the roof. The baby is held by a nurse or an elderly female member of the family in such a way that it will be caught in the spray of water. The baby yells in surprise and the relatives all shout for joy. The child is then named by the parents and elderly members of the family. As the child is named, a touch of palm-oil, salt, sugar and water is put into the baby's mouth. Festivities follow with presents for the baby from everyone interested. This is apparently a form of baptism and is felt to be in conformity with the Christian beliefs of the tribe.

The ceremony is practiced in this same manner today although some Christian families might invite a clergyman to come and administer the ceremony. Some non-Christian families might also include an offering or sacrifice and consultation of the household oracle on the child's behalf.

Yoruba Names

Among the Yoruba, children might have any combination of three different names: the Amuntorunwa (the name the child brought from heaven); the Abiso (the christening name) including the Abiku names; and the Oriki (the attributive name).

A child is said to be "born with a name" or Amuntorunwa when the peculiar circumstances of his or her birth may be expressed by a name which is applicable to all children born under like circumstances. The most obvious and important of these is twins. The birth of these children is felt to influence even those children born afterwards. Twins are believed by some members of the Yoruba to have almost superhuman powers. Other groups believed them to be monsters to be done away with at once.

With twins, Taiwo, the name of the first born is applicable to either sex. It is a shortened form of To-aiye-wo (have the first taste of the world). This child is believed to have been sent forward to announce the coming of the latter child and is considered the younger of the twins. The second twin is known as Kehinde or A-kehinde-gba-egbon (he who lags behind).

Idowu is the child born after twins, whether the child is male or female. These children are considered to be heady and stubborn. There is also some belief that a mother who has twins and then fails to have an Idowu may go mad because the wild and stubborn Idowu will fly into her head and render her insane. Therefore, mothers of twins are not at ease until the Idowu is born. Idogbe is a male child, Alaba, a female child born after Idowu.

Other circumstances of the child's birth also may be reflected in the child's name: Ilori is a child conceived in the absence of menstruation. Ojo or Aina is a child born with the cord around its neck; Ojo is only given to males, Aina to both sexes. Dada is a curly-headed child. A child born soon after the death of a grandparent is felt to be a reappearance of the older person and is named Babatunde (father comes again) if the deceased is the grandfather, Yetunde (mother comes again) if the deceased is the grandmother.

Not all children are considered to be born with a name. These children are not named at random, however, but for a purpose from circumstances connected with the child or with reference to family fortunes at the time. The names always have some significance either to the family or to the child itself. The child may be given two or more christening names, one from each parent, a grandparent or an elderly member of the family. The one most expressive of the family circumstances will be the name that is used.

Some names having reference to the child directly include Ayodele (joy enters the house), Akin (brave boy), Akinyele (a brave or strong one befits the house), Abebi (we asked for her and we got her), Ibiyemi (good birth becomes me) and Ibiyinka (surrounded by children). Names with reference to the family directly include Ogundalenu (our home has been devastated by war), Otegbeye (warfare deprives us of our honors), Ogunmola (the river Ogun took away our honor), Olabisi (increased honors) and Oyebisi (increased titles).

Some names that include Ade, Ola, Olu and Oye once belonged only to one of high or princely birth but are now used more or less indiscriminately. Adebiyi (the crown has begotten this), Adegbite (the crown demands a throne), Oyeyemi (title becomes me) and Oyewole (title enters the house). Other names that include Ade may not relate to a crown but may be taken from the verb "de" meaning arrive or come. Adebisi or Adwusi (my coming causes an increase), Adesina (my coming opens the way) or Adepoju (the coming has become too much).

Some Abiso names include fetish names, indicating the deity that is worshipped in the particular family. Examples include Sangobunmi (Sango, the god of thunder and lightning, gave me this), Oshunbunmi (the god of Oshun river gave me this), Ogundipe (Ogun, the god of war, consoles me with this), Omiyale (the god of streams visits the house), Faunmi (Ifa, the revered divination oracle, gave me this) and Fafunke (Ifa, the revered divination oracle, gave me this to pet).

Abiku names are given to a certain class of children who are "born to die." These children are thought to belong to a fraternity of demons or familiar spirits living in the woods, especially about and within large trees; and it is believed that each of these children, before coming into the world, would have arranged the precise time he or she will return to the spirits. Where a woman has lost several children in infancy, especially after a short period of illness, the deaths are attributed to this cause and means are adopted to thwart the supposed plans of these children so that the children may stay in this world. Charms are tied on them and they are branded with ugly marks so that the spirits will not want to associate with them and they will have to stay. Certain significant names are given to them as well in order to show that their plans or objectives have been anticipated.

Abiku names may include Malomo (do not go again), Kosoko (there is no hoe to dig a grave with), Banjoko (sit down/stay with me) or Durosinmi (wait and bury me). Periodic feasts are made for these children at which a principal dish must be beans with a liberal quantity of palm oil. Children of the same age are invited and the demons or familiar spirits are believed to attend as well. The feast is designed to appease the demons and make them realize that if they allow the child to stay, they will always be able to attend such feasts.

The belief in Abiku is felt to account for a relatively high infant mortality rate in the past before the advent of modern medical treatment. Parents would busy themselves with making charms to defeat demonsrather than giving proper treatment. This belief is not widespread today and most Yorubans accept the fact that the causes of infant mortality are disease and hereditary conditions.

Oriki names express what the child is or is hoped to become. If the child is a male, the Oriki is something heroic, strong or brave. For females, the name is a term of endearment or praise. It is intended to have a stimulating effect on the child.

Male attributive names include Ajamu (one who seizes after a fight), Ajagbe (one who carries off after a contest), Ajani (one who possesses after a struggle), Akande or Akanbi (one conceived after a single touch) and Alade (a male who comes after several female births). Female attributive names include Amoke (to know her is to pet her), Ayoka (one who causes joy all around), Abebi (one born after asupplication), Awero (one to be washed and dressed up) and Alake (one to be petted if she survives). The use of these names is so common that many children are better known by these names than by their real names. Oriki names are commonly used only by elders when addressing children to express a feeling of endearment for the child. It is considered impertinent for a younger person to call an elder by his Oriki or pet name.

Some names carry their own attributive names with them. For example, the attributive for Adeniji (the crown has a shadow) is Apata (a rock). Hence Adeniji Apata, Apata ni iji (Adeniji is a rock, a rock that cast out its shadow).

Igbo Names

Igbo naming traditions are similar to the Yoruba, both in semantics and circumstances. The beliefs about twins are almost the same. The major difference is that in the past, one twin was killed because of the belief that twins were an evil omen. The naming ceremonies are similar but a little simpler in terms of festivities. The adoption of Christianity has wiped out most of the superstitious beliefs about twins.

Some Igbo names indicate family situations. Nwakaego (a child is more precious than money) is given when the child is born to a poor family; Obianauju (a child born in the midst of plenty) is a female name used when the parents are wealthy and have a large family. Maduabuchi (nobody is like God) is given when a family member is maltreated or denied a favor at the time of the child's birth. Aznna (father is back) is used when the child is born after the death of his father or grandfather. Ijeoma (my journey is safe) indicates the child brought good luck to the family.

Other names indicate relationships to God. For example, Chuckwuemeka (thanks to God) is used when something spectacular happens at the time of a male child's birth. Chibuzor (my God is in front/God always protects) is a unisex name. Chidiebere (God is merciful) is given when a formerly barren woman later gives birth to a child of either sex.

Other common Igbo names may contain, or may consist entirely of the following: Ama, Ano, Anu, Chibu, Chika, Chukwu, Eke, Emeka, Obiu and Ugo. Igbo names most commonly begin with A, C, M and U and often end in -kwu.

Hausa Names

Hausa names are derived primarily from the Muslim religion and so are very similar to Arabic names. These include Abdul, Bello, Ibrahim, Kareem, Lateef, Lukmon, Mohammed, Mustapha and Saib.

General Considerations

Children have personal names and family names in Nigeria. The personal name(s) is(are) first, followed by the family name. The family name is the father's name. Sons retain this name throughout their lives; daughters adopt their husband's name when they are married. Unmarried mothers take the name of their father until they are married.

In the precolonial period, birth records were not kept. Since the days of the British colonization and especially since independence, birth records have been kept in the city and local government offices of the Birth, Death, Records and Marriage Registry.

Because of the nature of country's health care system, however, a large number of babies are still born outside of hospital settings. Thus, even today, birth records may be sketchy and estimates are not available as to the percentages of births that are officially registered.

While all of the foregoing information is interesting, the actual assistance to the investigator working Nigerian cases may be minimal. What do we know that may prove helpful?

1. Nigerian crime information developed as a result of US cases suggests that tribes seem to stick together when perpetrating scams. It is suggested, therefore, that the investigator attempt to determine both the tribe and the dialect spoken. For instance, when investigating a check fraud, wouldn't it be interesting to find that the customer who presented a bad check and the cashier who accepted the check without  proper identification were both Yoruba and both spoke the Oyo dialect?

2. Names with the same root may suggest geographic similarities. In the US, an investigator would not assume any relationship between individuals named Feldman and Felderson. Because some Nigeriannames reflect the surrounding geography at the time of the child's birth and naming, names that begin or end with a particular root may be indicative of a relation. The literal translation of one may be "born at the base of the grand purple mountain" while the second may be "born in the valley of the great purple mountain."

3. Because of the lack of absolute birth records, when a Nigerian applies for a visa in anticipation of traveling to the United States, he fills out papers which, in essence, attest to his own full name and date of birth. In some cases, this allows a person to arrive in the US with dozens of sets of valid identification papers, each with a different name and date of birth, but each with the individual's picture firmly affixed. In such cases, this same individual can then apply for valid drivers licenses, social security cards, etc., in each of these identifications. The question then changes from "Is this identification valid?" to "How many identities is this person operating under?" Addresses, vehicles registrations, etc., then become very necessary tracking tools.

4. Given the ease of obtaining a visa in a chosen name, there have been numerous instances documented in which an "American sounding" name was found on TV or in a book and then assumed for the purposes of obtaining identification; Bill Clinton, Roy Rogers, Michael Jackson and Bobby Brown are just a few. Investigators beware: rarely is a child born in Nigeria and given a true birth name such as Richard Johnson or James White.

5. In cases of organized Nigerian fraud, it is common that the perpetrator denies being from Nigeria and instead claims to be from either Haiti or the Virgin Islands. To an untrained ear the accents are indecipherable.

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